Portal of Entry | Cell/Tissue Type | Effect | Endpoint | Research Gap |
---|---|---|---|---|
Lung | Epithelium | Toxicity | Trypan blue, LDH, apoptosis | Â |
 |  | Inflammation | Gene expression, oxidative stress, signal transduction pathways |  |
 |  | Translocation | Transfer of nanoparticles across membranes | Translocation process |
 |  | Carcinogenesis | Genotoxicity, comet assay, 8OHdG, hprt assay, proliferation assay |  |
 | Macrophages | Toxicity | Trypan blue, LDH, apoptosis |  |
 |  | Chemotaxis | Chemotaxis assay | Recognition/Activation/Phagocytosis Process |
 |  | Phagocytosis | Particle uptake into cells, cytoskeletal staining |  |
 |  | Inflammation | Gene expression, oxidative stress, signal transduction pathways | Additional markers? |
 | Immune Cells | Immune response | Cytokine profile, adjuvant effects | Additional markers? |
 | Endothelium | Inflammation | Adhesion molecules, oxidative stress | Additional markers? |
 |  | Coagulation | Von Willebrand factor, tissue factor |  |
 | Fibroblasts | Inflammation | Oxidative stress, cytokine profile, gene expression profile |  |
 |  | Fibrosis | Collagen synthesis, cell proliferation |  |
 | Lung slices | Inflammation | Oxidative stress, signal transduction pathway, immuno-histopathology |  |
 |  | Translocation | Particles across membranes | Translocation process |
 |  | Fibrosis | Collagen synthesis |  |
Skin | Cell systems (e.g. HEK) | Cytotoxicity Inflammation | Cell viability – MTT, neutral red, Cytokine profile |  |
 | Flow-through diffusion systems | Absorption |  |  |
 | Isolated Skin Flap Model | Absorption, Cytotoxicity, Inflammation | Glucose utilization, any other markers depending on end points (cytokine profiles, histopath, etc.) |  |
Mucosa | Intestinal epithelium (GI tract) | Cytotoxicity | Cell viability – MTT, neutral red, trypan blue Apoptosis |  |
 |  | Inflammation | Cytokine profile, oxidative stress, signal transduction pathway |  |
 |  | Translocation | Permeability assays |  |
 | GALT | Inflammation | Cytokine profile, oxidative stress |  |
 |  | Immune response | Adjuvant effects | Additional markers? |
 | Buccal epithelium (oral cavitiy) | Cytotoxicity | Cell viability – MTT, neutral red, trypan blue Apoptosis |  |
 |  | Inflammation | Cytokine profile, oxidative stress, signal transduction pathway |  |
 |  | Translocation | Permeability assays |  |
 | Vaginal epithelium (reproductive system) | Cytotoxicity | Cell viability – MTT, neutral red, trypan blue Apoptosis |  |
 |  | Inflammation | Cytokine profile, oxidative stress, signal transduction pathway |  |
 |  | Translocation | Permeability assays |  |