Table 3 In vitro studies on immunological properties of NPs

TiO2 (6-48 h)

↗ oxidative stress (ROS) [121,122,123,124,125]

↗ DC, μɸ, lymphocytes [121, 122, 126]

Innate inflammatory response [122, 126,127,128]

↗ expression of TLR (TLR3, TLR4, TLR7 and TLR10) [126, 128]

↗ naïve T cells [122]

Cytotoxicity and inflammation [122, 123, 125, 129]

↗ pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-6, TNF-α, IL1-β) [121,122,123, 127, 130,131,132]

↗ mature DC [122, 131, 132]

Adjuvant [121, 130,131,132]

↗ chemokines secretion (IL-8 and CXCL1) ↙ activity (IL-8) [122, 133]

↗ mast cell activation [134]

Allergic response [134, 135]

↗ co-stimulatory molecules (CD80 and CD86) [122, 123, 131, 132]

↙ neutrophil and μɸ mobility [133]

Tissue damage [124, 133]

↗ MPO, MMP-9 and NET [124, 136]

↗ neutrophil activity [124, 136]

NETosis: inflammation, necrosis and apoptosis [124]

↗ β-hexosaminidase release [134]

inflammasome activation [123]

activation of NFkB pathway [128, 131]

SiO2 (6-48 h)

↗ apoptose [123, 125, 137, 138]

↙ DC and lymphocytes [123, 137, 138]

Imbalance of immune response [125, 126, 137,138,139,140]

↗ pro inflammatory cytokines (IL1-β, IL-2, TNF-α) [121, 123, 126, 138, 139, 141]

↗ DC maturation [123, 139]

Immunogenic or adjuvant potential [121, 123, 126, 140, 141]

↗ CD80, CD86 and MHCII [123, 138, 139]

↗ M1 μɸ polarization [126, 140]

Inflammation [121, 123, 125, 126, 137,138,139,140,141]

↙ TLR9 expression [126]

↗ neutrophil activity [142]

↗ Susceptibility IBD [123, 126, 140], autoimmune diseases [139, 140]

↗ oxidative stress (ROS) [125]

↗ cross-presentation [141]

NETosis: inflammation, necrosis and apoptosis [142]

inflammasome activation [123]

Cytotoxic effect [121, 123, 125, 137, 138, 140]

NFkB activation [138]

Susceptibility to infection [126]

↗ DNA release – NET [142]

Allergic response [135]

ZnO (6-48 h)

↗ pro inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, TNF-α, IL-6, IFN-ɣ) [125, 130, 143, 144]

↗ DC activity [130, 145]

Cytotoxicity and inflammation [125, 129, 130, 134, 143, 146]

↗ chemokines secretion (IL-8, CXCL9) [130, 144]

↙ Lymphocytes [146]

Imbalance of immune response [125, 129, 130, 143, 144]

↗ oxidative stress (ROS) [125, 145]

↗ neutrophil functions [136]

Chronic pathologies [143]

induces neo-synthesis of polypeptides [144]

↙ mast cell activation [134]

Allergenic response [134, 135]

↙ or ↗ apoptose [125, 129, 130, 144]

↗ eosinophils [144]

Protective effect [134, 144]

↗ DNA damage [125, 129, 146]

Genomic instability [146]

↙ β-hexosaminidase and histamine release [134]

Cell cycle imbalanced [125]

Ag (6-48 h)

↗ oxidative stress (ROS) [147,148,149]

↙ μɸ, lymphocyte [147,148,149]

Apoptosis and cytotoxicity [147,148,149]

↗ DNA damage [148]

↗ mast cell activation [135, 150, 151]

Inflammation/imbalance of immune response [147,148,149]

↗ pro inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, TNF-α) [147, 149]

Allergic response [135, 150, 151]

inflammasome activation [147]

↗ β-hexosaminidase release [135, 150, 151]