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Table 4 In vivo studies on immunological properties of NPs

From: Impacts of foodborne inorganic nanoparticles on the gut microbiota-immune axis: potential consequences for host health

NPs

Time

Cell response

Cell frequency/activity

Dose range

Potential effect

Ref

TiO2

1 -14 d

↗ IFN-ɣ and IL-17 in spleen

↗ Th17 and Th1 in spleen

10 mg/kg bw/d

inflammation

[116]

↗ DC frequency in PP

imbalance immune response

↙ Treg and T helper cells in PP

immunossuppression

↗ inflammatory cytokines in ileum

(IL-12, IL-4, IL-23, TNF-α, IFN-γ)

↗ T cells CD4+ in small intestin

100 mg/kg bw/d

inflammation

[161]

  

5 g/kg bw (single oral gavage)

no toxic effects

[165]

> 28 d

↗ TNF-α, IL-10 and IL-8 in colon

↙ Treg and T helper cells in PP

10 mg/kg bw/d

risk of preneoplasic lesions in colon

[116]

↗ IL-6, TNF-α, IL1-β in ovary

(expression and production)

↙ white cells and lymphocytes in blood

2.5; 5; 10 mg/kg bw/d

inflammation and follicule atresia

[166]

fertility reduction

↗ glucose in blood of young rats

↗ mast cells activation in stomach

10, 50, 200 mg/kg bw/d

alteration of gastrointestinal functions

[167]

Heart, Liver and Kidney injuries

SiO2

7 -14 d

↙ inflammatory cytokines in blood

(IL1-β, TNF-α, IL-12p70, IL-6 and IFN-ɣ)

↙ Natural Killer acitivity in spleen

750 mg/kg bw/d

immunossuppression

[168]

↙ T cells and B cells proliferation in spleen

dysregulation of immune response

↙ Lymphocytes population in blood

 

↗ IgG and IgE in blood

↗ splenocyte proliferation

0.1; 1; 10 mg/mouse/d

imbalance immune response (dose dependent)

[162]

↗ inflammatory cytokines in spleen

(INF-É£, IL-4, IL-5 and IL-17)

risk of food allergy development

≥ 28 d

 

slight ↗ lymphocytes in blood

2.5 mg/mouse/d

no effect

[169]

Ag

7-14 d

↗ TGF-β in blood

↗ B and Natural Killer cells in blood

↗ T CD8+ population in blood

1 mg/kg bw/d

imbalance immune response

[170]

↗ IgG in blood,

↗ TGF-β and IFN-ɣ in spleen

↗ splenocyte proliferation

0.01; 0.1; 1; 10 mg/kg bw/d

imbalance immune response

[163]

≥ 28 d

↗ inflammatory cytokines in blood

(IL1-β, IL-6, IL-4, IL-10, IL-12 and TGF-β)

↗ T CD8+ population in blood

0.25; 0.50; 1 mg/kg bw/d

inflammation

[170]

↗ IgE in blood

↗ B cell in blood

risk of food allergy development

↙ gene expression in ileum

(MUC3, TLR2, TLR4, FOXP3, IL-10, TGF-β)

 

9 mg/kg bw/d

immunossuppression

[105]

   

sexual dimorphism response

  1. The relevant doses for humans are indicated in bold. DC dendritic cell, FOXP3 forkhead box P3, GPR43 G-protein coupled receptor 43, IFN-γ interferon-gamma, Ig immunoglobulin, IL interleukin, MUC3 mucin 3, NOD2 nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain 2, TGF-β transforming growth factor beta, Th T helper, TLR Toll-like receptor, TNF-α tumor necrosis factor alpha, Treg regulatory T-cell