Table 4 Overview of in vivo studies of the immunotoxic effects of nano- and microplastics in vertebrates. *This has been calculated by the authors based on Bachmanov AA et al. Behav Genet 2002 [73]
From: Immunotoxicity and intestinal effects of nano- and microplastics: a review of the literature
Reference | Nano-microplastics | Dosage | Duration of exposure | Route of exposure | Species | Observed immunotoxic effects |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nanoplastics | ||||||
Greven et al., Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 2016 [111] | Polystyrene 41 nm | 0.025–0.05-0.1- 0.2 μg/μL | 2 h | Tank water | Fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas) | Neutrophil function in vitro assays Dose dependent ↑myeloperoxidase activity and neutrophil extracellular trap release |
Brandts et al., Genomics. 2018 [112] | Polymethylmethacrylate ~ 45 nm | 0.02–0.2-2-20 mg/L | 96 h | Tank water | European sea bass (Dicentrarchus Labrax) | Plasma ↓ esterase activity (biomarker of oxidative stress) (0.02 and 0.2 mg/L) |
Microplastics | ||||||
Greven et al., Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 2016 [111] | Polycarbonate 158.7 nm | 0.025–0.05-0.1- 0.2 μg/μL | 2 h | Tank water | Fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas) | Neutrophil function in vitro assays Dose dependent ↑ myeloperoxidase activity, neutrophil extracellular trap release, and oxidative burst |
Asmoniate et al., Environ. Sci.Technol.2018 [79] | Polystyrene 100–400 μm | 10 mg /fish/day | 4 weeks | Food | Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) | No variation of immune parameters: serum lysosyme activity blood immune cells counts |
Banaee et al., Chemosphere 2019 [113] | Isolated from body scrub (likely polyethylene) No data on size | 250 and 500 μg/L | 30 days | Tank water | Common carp (Cyprinus carpio) | Plasma ↓total immunoglobulin ↓alternative complement activity ↓ complement C3 ↓complement C4 ↓lysozyme activity ↓acetylcholinesterase activity ↓γ-glutamyl-transferase activity ↑ lactate deshydrogenase activity ↑alkaline phosphatase activity |
Espinosa et al., Fish Shellfish Immunol. 2017 [114] | Polyvinyl chloride 40–150 μm | 100–500 mg/kg of food | 15, 30 days | Food | Gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata) | ↑ head-kidney leucocyte phagocytic capacity (15 days only) |
Espinosa et al., Environ. Pollut. 2018 [115] | Polyvinyl chloride - Polyethylene 40–150 μm | 1–10-100 mg/mL | 1 h 24 h | Tank water | European sea bass (Dicentrarchus Labrax) Gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata) | Head-kidney leucocytes European sea bass PVC: ↓phagocytic capacity (all dosages, 1 h and 24 h) PE: ↑ respiratory burst (100 mg/mL, 24 h) Gilthead seabream PVC: ↓phagocytic ability, ↑ respiratory burst (100 mg/mL, 24 h) PVC and PE: ↑ Nrf2 expression (100 mg/mL, 1 h) |
Espinosa et al., Fish Shellfish Immunol. 2019 [88] | Polyvinyl chloride - Polyethylene 40–150 μm | 100–500 mg/kg of food | 3 weeks | Food | European sea bass (Dicentrarchus Labrax) | Cellular innate immune parameters in head kidney leucocytes PVC: ↑ phagocytic capacity at both dosages ↑ respiratory burst activity at 100 mg/kg PE: ↑ respiratory burst activity at both dosages |
Limonta et al., Sci rep 2019 [90] | Irregularly shaped high density polyethylene and polystyrene particles | 100 and 1000 μg/L | 20 days | Food | Zebrafish (Danio rerio) | ↓ liver leukotriene B4 receptor (ltb4r) and interferon induced transmembrane protein 1 (ifitm1) expression |
Li et al., Chemosphere. 2020 [93] | Polyethylene 10–150 μm | 2–20-200 μg/g ~ 0.0004, 0.004 and 0.04 μg/kg bw/day* | 5 weeks | Food | C57BL/6 mice (Mus musculus) | At 20 and 200 μg/g: serum:↑ IL1α, ↓G-CSF spleen:↓Treg cells, ↑Th17 cells |
Park et al., Toxicology Letters 2020 [116] | Polyethylene irregular micropsheres 16.9 ± 1.9 μm | 0.125, 0.5 and 2 mg/day/mouse ~ 5, 20 an 80 μg/kg bw/day* | 90 days | Gavage | ICR mice (Mus musculus) | In dams: ↑ blood neutrophils ↑ blood IgA levels In dams and offspring: alteration of spleen lymphocytes |