Table 1 Physicochemical properties of titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO₂ NPs) used in the present study

Shape

SEM

Spherical

Average diameter

SEM

29 ± 9 nm

Atomic percentage of Ti

EDS

32.66 ± 0.24%

Atomic percentage of O

EDS

67.34 ± 0.96%

Crystal structure

XRD

Anatase

Purity

ICP-MS

99.90%

Specific surface area

BET

77.51 ± 0.29 m²/g

Hydrodynamic diameter in H₂O

DLS

40.8 ± 0.38 nm

Hydrodynamic diameter in AGJ

DLS

149.3 ± 33.9 nm

Hydrodynamic diameter in AIG

DLS

168.1 ± 29.6 nm

Zeta potential in H₂O

DLS

11.09 ± 1.23 mV

Zeta potential in AGJ

DLS

4.73 ± 0.52 mV

Zeta potential in AIJ

DLS

 − 13.7 ± 0.92 mV