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Table 2 Potential analytical techniques for the characterization of corona formation on M/NPs, their strengths and limitations

From: Coronas of micro/nano plastics: a key determinant in their risk assessments

Techniques

Corona Information

Sample states

Strengths

Limitations

UV–vis

Binding of protein corona to M/NPs

Particles

High reproducible and precision. nondestructive

Not suitable for qualification, susceptible to sample matrix, low sensitivity

DLS

Binding of coronas to M/NPs

Particles

Rapid and reproducible measurement of many nanoparticles, nondestructive

Not suitable for qualification and quantification, not suitable for heterogeneous particles

Fluorescence microscopy

Binding of coronas to M/NPs

Particles

High sensitive and good for real–time detection

Requirements for fluorescence labeling

TEM

Interactions between M/NPs and corona

Particles

High spatial resolution

Not suitable for qualification and quantification

SEM

Interactions between M/NPs and corona

Particles

High spatial resolution

Low particle population, poor qualification and quantification

AFM

Interactions between M/NPs and corona

Particles

High spatial resolution, possibility for 3D imaging

Poor efficiency

EDX

Elemental, especially metal elemental distribution

Particles

High efficiency

Not suitable for organic elements

Raman

Structures of organic substances, such as natural organic matters, lipids, persistent organic pollutants

Particles

Broad coverage of both organic and inorganic species

Low spatial resolution

FTIR

Structures of organic substances, such as natural organic matters, lipids, persistent organic pollutants

Particles

Good repeatability, high flexibility

Low accuracy and sensitivity, not available for inorganic species

ICP–MS

Compositions of metal or metal ions

Acid digested solution

High sensitivity and accuracy, quantification

Not suitable for organic compounds

TOF–SIMS

Structures of organic substances, such as natural organic matters, lipids, persistent organic pollutants, proteins

Particles

3D profile with high mass resolution and spatial resolution

Poor quantification, not suitable for unknown compounds, requirements for samples

GC–MS

Compositions of hydrophobic and volatile organic compounds, such as flame retardants, lubricants and plasticizers and persistent organic pollutants

Solvent extracted solution

High sensitivity and reproducibility

Not suitable for thermally labile compounds

LC–MS

Compositions of thermally labile coronas, such as proteins, lipids, peptides

Enzyme digested or solvent extracted solution

Broad coverage of compounds, high sensitivity and accuracy

Requirements for multistep sample pretreatment, ex situ analysis

CE–MS

Compositions of thermally labile coronas, such as proteins and metabolites

Enzyme digested or solvent extracted solution

High resolution and selectivity

Not suitable for direct analysis of high molecular proteins, limited loading capacity