Fig. 2

Impairment of mitochondria and mitochondrial stress by PS-NPs in differentiated SH-SY5Y cells. A Representative TEM images of cells after PS-NP exposure. Red arrows indicate mitochondria, and yellow arrows indicate mitophagosomes. Impact of PS-NPs on B, C ΔΨm and D cellular ATP levels. E Mitochondrial stress profiles. Relative changes in key parameters of mitochondrial function: F basal respiration, G maximal respiration, H mitochondrial ATP production, and I proton (H⁺) leakage. J–N The quantification of protein expression levels of ETC CI-NDUFB8, CII-SDHB, CIII-UQCRC2, CVI-MTCO2, and CV-ATP5A. Results are presented as mean ± SD (n = 3). *P < 0.05, **P < 0.01, ***P < 0.001, compared to the 0 μg/mL group