Fig. 9

Proposed adverse outcome pathway for nanomaterials exposure. The scheme shows that the generation of cellular ROS and mitochondrial ROS induced by engineered nanomaterials is the molecular initiating event, resulting in decreased mitochondrial membrane potential (KE1), finally contributing to adverse outcomes of mitochondrial dysfunction and cell apoptosis. In addition, the molecular initiating event can activate the PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway (KE2), which then promotes TNTs formation and mitochondrial transfer (KE3) against the adverse outcome