Table 4 Summary of THP-1 macrophage acute toxicity and inflammation response to pre- and post-incinerated organomodified nanoclay exposure in the presence or absence of LPS

Crystal structure

Montmorillonite

Montmorillonite

Amorphous quartz

Crystalline quartz

Crystalline quartz

Mean particle size in RPMI (µm)

0.304

1.064

2.302

2.104

0.786

Cellular uptake

+++; endosome

++; endosome

+; endosome

+; endosome

ND

w LPS

WST-1 viability^a

 > 20

4.11

 > 20

 > 20

 > 20

Live cell count^a

6.82

2.36

11.06

7.56

11.06

LDH cytotoxicity (%)

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

Cathepsin B

1.1

2.47

1.05

1.17

1.05

Caspase I

1.60

− 1.05

1.14

1.49

− 1.11

Late apoptosis

1.97

1.19

1.07

1.23

− 1.41

IL-1β

5.80

2.67

1.07

− 1.04

− 1.33

Gasdermin D cleavage (%)

13.00

32.11

4.62

4.93

2.89

Inflammatory profile

IL-1β, T_H1/T_H2/T_H17

IL-1β, T_H1/T_H2/T_H17

Minimal

IL-1ra

IL-1ra

w/o LPS

WST-1 viability^a

11.13

5.41

 > 20

 > 20

 > 20

Live cell count^a

15.32

2.91

 > 20

 > 20

 > 20

LDH cytotoxicity (%)

14.5

74.6

22.5

16.4

13.6

IL-1α

1.14

1.97

1.06

1.16

1.24

ATP

3.19

6.2

2.56

− 6.0

1.46

MMP

-1.23

− 1.02

− 1.02

1.01

1.05

Reactive oxygen species

− 1.39

− 1.06

− 1.18

− 1.12

− 1.01

Inflammatory profile

T_H1/T_H2/T_H17

T_H1/T_H2/T_H17

T_H1/T_H2/T_H17

MIP-1β, TNFα, IL-2, Eotaxin, FGFβ

MIP-1β